Which of the Following Features of Apulu Is Not Unique to Etruscan Art?

Etruscan Bronze Sculpture

Etruscan statuary classical art demonstrates the range and skill of artists who crafted large votive offerings and small, personal trinkets.

Learning Objectives

Talk over the different forms of bronze objects produced by the Etruscans

Central Takeaways

Key Points

• Few examples remain of any big-scale Etruscan bronze statues from the Classical era.
• The Chimera of Arezzo is a unique statuary votive offering to the god Tinia. The statuary sculpture demonstrates the Etruscans' skill in bronze casting through the beast'southward tense and plastic musculature, stylized mane, and fierce expression.
• The bronze Ombra della sera depicts the man body in an elongated fashion that is unusual for its time, while the Mars of Todi depicts a much more than naturalistic representation. Minor objects such equally mirrors and cistae, small boxes, were likewise made of bronze during the Classical period. These objects were decorated with engravings or low relief casts that draw mythological scenes and were popular grave goods .
• While distinctly different from big-calibration statuary, the pocket-sized bronze objects demonstrate the variety and skill of Etruscan metal smiths that was starting time seen in the Orientalizing menses with Etruscan jewelry and granulation techniques.

Key Terms

• engrave: To carve text or symbols into (something), commonly for the purposes of identification or art.
• cista: A Latin discussion for a small box that used to hold unguents, jewels, or toiletries. They are more often than not used and related to women and domestic functions.
• pyxis: A pocket-sized box.

Etruscan Bronze Sculptures

During its Classical period, from 480 to 300 BCE, Etruscan art was known for its hollow cast bronze sculptures and smaller utilitarian objects. Objects such as mirrors and cistae were engraved or incised with rich imagery that was made noticeable by a white substance inserted into the outlines and contour lines .

The Etruscan sculptures of human subjects range from naturalistic to exaggerated, about modernist, forms , and the mythical creatures from the Greek and Eastern traditions found their way into their subject affair. In total, Etruscan sculpture incorporates a variety of cultural styles and motifs , including Orientalizing, Archaic , and Classical.

Very few Etruscan bronze sculptures survived because they were melted downwards in the post-obit centuries to be used for other purposes.

Lost-Wax Casting

Also known by its French proper name cire perdue, lost-wax casting is the oldest method of producing metal sculptures. Although any cloth that can be liquified and afterwards solidified tin can be cast, metal is the well-nigh mutual. Of all metals, bronze is the most commonly bandage.

In lost-wax casting, the sculptor begins past making a clay mold of the intended sculpture, coats it in wax, and applies an outer layer of plaster to it, fastening metallic rods to hold the shell in place and wax rods to vent the mold. Intense oestrus is then practical, causing the wax to melt and flow out of the mold. This pace leaves open channels into which molten metal is poured.

When the metallic has cooled and hardened, the mold is broken, the sculpture is removed, and the holes left from the pins and rods are filled and smoothed. Finally, the sculpture is polished and gear up for display. Because the mold must be destroyed, sculptors use the lost-wax method to produce one-of-a-kind sculptures.

Chimera of Arezzo

The statuary statue of the Bubble , discovered in the metropolis of Arezzo in 1553, has recently been judged every bit a forgery. The reasoning rests more on the fact that there are no comparable existing Etruscan sculptures than on scientific testing.

An inscription on the right foreleg marks the bronze as a votive offering to the supreme Etruscan god, Tinia (comparable to Roman Jupiter). The sculpture depicts the Bubble, a mythical beast with the body and head of a lion, a ophidian for a tail, and with a goat's head in the centre of its back. The creature plagued the area of Lycia until it was slain by the hero Bellerophon.

The ophidian tail was not discovered with the statue; the current tail is an eighteenth century restoration.

Bubble of Arezzo: The bronze statue demonstrates Etruscan artistic techniques and how the liveliness seen in Etruscan terra cotta sculpture is transmitted into the bronze medium.

The bronze statue demonstrates Etruscan artistic techniques and how the liveliness seen in Etruscan terra cotta sculpture is transmitted into the bronze medium . The figure is well modeled and expressive—from its tense muscles, fix pose, and roaring face of the lion and goat. The fauna'southward ribs are clearly visible and a wound on its rump bleeds. The lion'southward posture—he crouches and looks up—suggests that in that location may take been an additional figure of Bellerophon to create a votive group. The figure's face up and mane is stylized and the patterning is reminiscent of Well-nigh Eastern depictions of lions.

Ombra della sera

Produced in the metal-rich town of Velathri (later Volterra), the Ombra della sera (Italian for Evening Shadow) represents a male person nude that is near two anxiety high. Archaeologists estimate its date of product to the third century BCE.

In aboriginal times, Volterra bronze workers were known for their ability to fuse copper ores with tin to form bronze. The  body of the sculpture is very elongated, while the scale of its caput is naturalistic.

The title Ombra della sera was applied to the sculpture centuries subsequently by a poet who likened its exaggerated grade to shadows bandage by the setting sun. These unusual proportions lead some experts to believe that the sculpture was intended as a votive offering.

Ombra della Sera: The unusual proportions of this tertiary-century bronze statue atomic number 82 some experts to believe that the sculpture was intended as a votive offering.

Mars of Todi

The so-called Mars of Todi (late fifth-early fourth century BCE) is a nearly life-size statuary warrior produced as a votive offer, maybe to Laran, the Etrucscan god of state of war. The figure probably held a patera (libation bowl) in his extended right hand, and a spear in the left.

His helmet is missing, only his trunk armor is one of the all-time surviving examples that shows how plate armor from the catamenia appeared. Unlike the Ombra della sera, the Mars of Todi is very naturalistic, complete with a dynamic contrapposto pose and inlaid eyes.

A dedication that combines the Etruscan alphabet and Latin dialect from Umbria (central Italy) is inscribed on the brim of the breastplate. It translates as, "Ahal Trutitis gave [this equally a] gift." Interestingly, the proper name of the donor was Celtic in origin, denoting the cosmopolitan nature of the region in ancient times.

Mars of Todi: This bronze statue is a virtually life-size statuary warrior, and was produced as a votive offering, possibly to Laran, the Etrucscan god of war.

Bronze Objects

The Etruscans as well used bronze to create small objects, including storage jars, or cistae, and mirrors. Etruscan bronze mirrors were used by women and often deposited as grave goods. These mirrors were highly burnished on 1 side to reflect an image, and on the other side were decorated with engraved or low-relief casted scenes.

The images depicted were often scenes from Greek mythology, that demonstrate the importation of Greek culture and mythology. Many of these mirrors were inscribed with the deceased's name, and ritual blessings.

Judgment of Paris: Etruscan bronze mirrors were used past women and oft deposited as grave goods. This shows a mirror with an engraving of the Judgment of Paris.

Cistae were also ofttimes inscribed and were also decorated with engravings and added statuary elements, such as anxiety, chains, and decorative handle lids. The cistae were small boxes with lids, much like a pyxis , that was made from statuary and was commonly cylindrical.

The handles of the lids were often figures, such as a man or a sphinx , or figural groups. Similar the mirrors, the engraved scenes represented images from mythology, but some images also depict scenes from Etruscan history.

Cista with a boxing between Etruscans and Gauls on it: The handles of the lids were often figures, similar the men on this cista, or a sphinx, or figural groups.

Etruscan Art under the Influence of the Romans

As the Etruscan territories fell under Roman say-so, Etruscan culture and art inverse to reverberate Roman influence and new cultural values.

Learning Objectives

Describe the changes that appeared in Etruscan art during the Roman flow

Cardinal Takeaways

Primal Points

• Funerary imagery changed in Etruscan lodge every bit the Etruscans began to meet violence and conquest by their Roman neighbors. The figures of the underworld demons Charun and Vanth, too as apotropaic figures, are depicted in tomb paintings and and on sarcophagi during the Etrusco-Roman catamenia.
• The Sarcophagus of Lars Pulena not merely depicts the figures of Charun and Vanth, the hat besides depicts the deceased as a prosperous and wealthy Etruscan, complete with a curlicue list his accomplishments. The sarcophagus demonstrates the shifting values in Etruscan society.
• The life-size statuary statue of Aule Metele depicts an Etruscan human dressed and behaving as a Roman. The homo wears a toga and Roman sandals and is posed in a position of oration, as would be mutual for a Roman magistrate. The sculpture demonstrates the mixing of Etruscan and Roman styles and civilization .
• Temple sculpture likewise changed during the Roman flow, with terra cotta pedimental sculptures adorning at least two temples during the second century BCE. Both sculpture groups display Graeco-Roman naturalism in the depiction of the trunk. One grouping wears Roman-style armed services attire.

Key Terms

• veristic: Realistic; truthful to life.
• cinerary urn: A vessel used to concord the ash remains of the cremated deceased.

Etruscan Art under Rome

In 509 BCE, the Etruscan kings of Rome were expelled from the city, and the Roman Republic was established. By the 4th century BCE, Rome was beginning to expand across the Italian peninsula, and the first Etruscan city to fall was Veii in 396 BCE.

Over the post-obit centuries, Etruria was involved in Roman wars, and Etruscan territory was fully conquered by the Romans by the showtime of the beginning century BCE. While Roman culture drew from its Etruscan roots, borrowing and adapting Etruscan customs, Etruscan society was also influenced past Roman culture.

During this period, art brainstorm to adopt a Roman style and brandish the permeation of Roman culture and values into Etruscan guild. The threat of invasion also led to the mutual presence of violence, peculiarly in funerary images.

Funerary Art and Sarcophagi

Funerary art , both in tomb paintings and on carved sarcophagi, underwent a noticeable change in bailiwick matter during the Roman menstruation. The figures of Charun and Vanth, demons of the underworld, were depicted with increasing regularity.

Both figures are often depicted with wings, while Charun is often depicted with blueish pare to signify putrefying mankind. They also acquit torches, used to lite the manner to the underworld, or sometimes keys to open the door to the underworld, which underline the figures' role every bit guides between the world of the living and the world of the dead. In the tomb paintings in Tarquinia, the figures of Charun and Vanth can be seen painted in front of or around doorways.

Charun and Vanth: Charun guards the gate to the Underworld, while Vanth guides the deceased to the gate in this fresco from the third century BCE.

While Charun'due south name is likely a derivative of the Greek underworld ferryman Charon, Vanth appears to be uniquely Etruscan. Due to Charun's menacing associations, theories take attempted to associate Vanth with the avenging Greek Furies. Yet, her role as a benevolent guide conflicts with this suggestion.

Regardless of Vanth's verbal office and origins, the appearance of a less-than-joyous afterlife and menacing figures in Etruscan funerary art does not emerge until after the beginning of the Roman incursions into Etruscan territory. Peradventure Vanth is a gentler apotropaic figure, offering the reassurance of an ally in the afterlife to counteract the trials faced in the face up of impending cultural collapse and assimilation.

The Sarcophagus of Lars Pulena

Charun and Vanth too announced on stone and terracotta sarcophagi. Charun is also sometimes depicted with a hammer. On the Sarcophagus of Lars Pulena, two figures of Charun (with hammers but without wings) are depicted on either side of a cardinal figure, nearly likely Lars Pulena, swinging their hammers at his head. The trigger-happy prototype might accept been used as an apotropaic device to ward off evil.

However, in comparing to earlier funerary images, the level of violence seems to mimic the new level of violence in Etruscan guild from Roman forces and influence. Ii winged representations of Vanth also appear on the sarcophagus, at either terminate of the frieze .

The lid of the sarcophagus depicts a portrait of the deceased. The man lies alone, wearing a somber expression, dissimilar the earlier terra cotta Sacophagus of the Spouses.

His confront is wrinkled and reflects a Roman republican portrait style, which equates historic period with wisdom and leadership capabilities. He has a pot belly, signifying his wealth, good life, and robust eating, and he holds a whorl beyond his lap that is inscribed with a list of his accomplishments.

Sarcophagus of Lars Pulena: The sculpture reflects a Roman republican portrait manner, which equates historic period with wisdom and leadership capabilities. Figures of Charon and Vanth are also on the frieze.

Smaller cinerary urns assumed the shapes of sarcophagi during this period. These urns are topped with images of the deceased lying across the lid, often in Roman dress, with relief-carved scenes of battle, violence, or Charun and Vanth.

The adult female who reclines atop the urn wears attire more akin to that of a Roman matron than to the adult female on the Sarcophagus of the Spouses. Unlike the Etruscans, who buried their dead in tombs designed to mimic the advent and comforts of individual homes, the Romans practiced cremation and stored the ashes of their deceased in cinerary urns. This shift in Etruscan civilization demonstrates the adoption of Roman funerary practices.

Cinerary urn: This shows a terra cotta cinerary urn for a woman. The acme of the urn has an image of the deceased lying beyond the chapeau, and apotropaic imagery is seen on the urn.

Aule Metele

Aule Metele, besides known as The Orator,  is a life-size statuary sculpture of an Etrusco-Roman man. The effigy is depicted wearing a Roman toga and Roman sandals. He stands in a pose of an orator, with his hand raised to address a crowd. To further emphasize this gesture, the hand is slightly enlarged.

He is clearly depicted every bit an individual, and an inscription on the hem of his toga in Etruscan names him as Aule Metele. Aule Metele dresses as a Roman magistrate, and his confront is a cross between Hellenistic and Roman veristic portraiture.

Aule Metele: As well known as The Orator, this is a life-size statuary sculpture of an Etrusco-Roman man. The sculpture shows a level of individuality through the gaunt cheeks, thin lips, and wrinkled forehead.

The sculpture shows a level of individuality through the gaunt cheeks, thin lips, and wrinkled forehead. As with the sculpture on the Sarcophagus of Lars Pulena, these attributes of age align with the respect afforded to elders in Roman society. While the inscription marks him equally an Etruscan, his attire and pose demonstrate the absorption of Roman culture into Etruscan society and the adoption—specially by the ruling grade of Etruscans—of Roman civic practices.

Late Temple Sculpture

By the second century BCE, at least ii Etruscan temples began to testify show of the absorption of the Roman culture. Unlike early temples, whose pediments were largely unadorned, the temples in the cities of Luna and Talamone incorporated pedimental sculptures in the style of the Greeks.

Although Roman pediments remained free of sculpture groups, the Roman influence is conspicuously visible in these terra cotta figures. Whereas pre-Roman temple sculptures were largely stylized like the Apulu of Veii, the pedimental figures from the temples at Luna and Talamone possess the naturalism of Classical and Hellenistic sculpture, both of which were adopted past the Romans.

Dissimilar Greek pedimental sculpture that depicted male nudes, the figures from the pediment from Talamone, which depicts the fate of the Seven confronting Thebes, wearable Roman boxing gear, including brusque-sleeved skirted armor. By the time the sculpture groups from both temples were produced, their cities were under Roman command.

Pedimental fragments from the Temple of Luna: The pedimental figures from the temples at Luna and Talamone possess the naturalism of Classical and Hellenistic sculpture, both of which were adopted by the Romans.

Pediment from the Temple of Talamone: The first closed pediment in Etruria, this sculpture group depicts the fate of the Seven confronting Thebes.

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Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/later-etruscan-art/

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